Vespasian

Vespasian (born November 17?, ad 9, Reate [Rieti], Latium—died June 24, 79) Roman emperor (ad 69–79) who, though of humble birth, became the founder of the Flavian dynasty after the civil wars that followed Nero’s death in 68. His fiscal reforms and consolidation of the empire generated political stability and a vast Roman building program.

Early life

Vespasian was the son of Flavius Sabinus, a Roman knight who had been a tax collector. His mother, Vespasia Polla, also belonged to the equestrian order in society but had a brother who entered the Senate. In his early life Vespasian was somewhat overshadowed by his older brother, Flavius Sabinus, who rose to hold an important command on the Danube about ad 48 and was prefect of Rome for many years under Nero. Although Vespasian is said to have hesitated before following his brother into the Senate, his career was in no sense retarded; for, after military service in Thrace and a quaestorship in Crete, he reached the praetorship in the earliest year allowed him by law, namely ad 39, the year in which his elder son, Titus, was born.

Vespasian ingratiated himself with the ruling emperor, Caligula (Gaius Caesar); and in the next reign, that of Claudius, he won the favour of the powerful freedman Narcissus. He became commander of the Legio II Augusta, which took part in the invasion of Britain in 43. After distinguished conduct at the crossing of the Medway River, he was given charge of the left wing of the advance; he proceeded to occupy the Isle of Wight and to conquer tribes as far west as Devon, capturing more than 20 “towns.” For these achievements he was awarded triumphal honours and appointed to two priesthoods, and in 51 he became consul. But, on Claudius’s death in 54, Narcissus, whose power had been waning, was driven to suicide; and for a time Vespasian received no further appointment. About 63 he obtained the proconsulate of Africa, where his extreme financial rigour made him so unpopular that on one occasion the people pelted him with turnips. There was no ground for suspecting personal enrichment, but the reputation for avarice remained with him the rest of his life.

In the autumn of 66 he accompanied Nero to Greece, where he was indiscreet enough to fall asleep at the emperor’s artistic performance. But this did not prevent his appointment, in February 67, to the command against the Jewish rebellion in Judaea, the scene of two disastrous Roman defeats in the previous year. The appointment was exceptional because Judaea had never before been garrisoned by a legionary army, and Vespasian was given three legions with a large force of auxiliary troops. For such an appointment Vespasian was regarded as a safe man—a highly competent general but one whose humble origins made it almost inconceivable that he would challenge Nero’s government should he win victories. As long as Nero was alive, this diagnosis was surely right. Vespasian conducted two successful campaigns in 67 and 68, winning almost all Judaea except Jerusalem. But on Nero’s death in June 68 he stopped fighting.

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Struggle for power

This pause was surprising, and it was accompanied by the fact that at this moment, with his son Titus as intermediary, Vespasian settled certain differences he had had with the neighbouring governor of Syria, Gaius Licinius Mucianus. The matters discussed between the two commanders are unknown, but the circumstances cannot but raise the question whether they were already considering a bid for power. Vespasian seems to have claimed that further operations against the Jews required a directive from the new emperor, Galba. Such a claim may have been formally valid, but there may have also been underlying political considerations. Vespasian did eventually decide to accept Galba, whose noble descent, given the standards of the day, would have been daunting to a man of Vespasian’s position in society. He therefore remained quiet and in the following winter sent Titus to congratulate Galba.

The news of Galba’s murder on January 15, 69, reached Titus on his way at Corinth, and he returned to participate in more pregnant discussions between Vespasian and Mucianus. A civil war in Italy was now inevitable; but the main contenders, Otho and Vitellius, were both men whom Vespasian could reasonably hope to challenge. The chronology of Vespasian’s actions cannot be precisely determined; what is certain is that at the latest after Otho’s defeat and suicide on April 16, he began to collect support. On July 1, probably as a result of a contrived plot, the two Egyptian legions proclaimed him emperor, followed a few days later by the legions of Syria and Judaea. The ubiquitous response in other parts of the empire can hardly have been unplanned, despite Vespasian’s claim that his pronunciamento was a response to the misgovernment of Vitellius (who only reached Rome in mid-July).

To ensure his base he had fought a brief campaign against the Jews in midsummer; but he now sent Mucianus with an expeditionary force to Dyrrhachium (Durazzo), where a fleet was instructed to meet him. Vespasian himself went to Alexandria and held up Rome’s corn supply. During August the Danubian armies made open their support for him; one of their legionary commanders, Antonius Primus, entered Italy with five legions, destroyed the main Vitellian force near Cremona, and sacked that city. Antonius then proceeded victoriously southward, entering Rome on December 20, when Vitellius was murdered by his own troops. But Antonius arrived too late to prevent the execution of Vespasian’s brother Sabinus, who had been persuaded to occupy the capitol, where his small force had been stormed by the Vitellians. It was also alleged that but for Antonius’s invasion and its destructive progress Vespasian’s victory could have been bloodless, a very doubtful claim. Vespasian gave no thanks to Antonius, whose final misfortune was that Mucianus was able to cross quickly to Rome and take over the reins of power.