hand tool
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- Related Topics:
- cutlery
- saw
- wrench
- flake tool
- vise
hand tool, any of the implements used by craftspersons in manual operations, such as chopping, chiseling, sawing, filing, or forging. Complementary tools, often needed as auxiliaries to shaping tools, include such implements as the hammer for nailing and the vise for holding. A craftsperson may also use instruments that facilitate accurate measurements: the rule, divider, square, and others. Power tools—usually handheld motor-powered implements such as an electric drill or electric saw—perform many of the old manual operations and as such may be considered hand tools.
A tool is an implement or device used directly upon a piece of material to shape it into a desired form. The earliest known tools, found in 2011 and 2012 in a dry riverbed near Kenya’s Lake Turkana, have been dated to 3.3 million years ago. The present array of tools has as common ancestors the sharpened stones that were the keys to early human survival. Rudely fractured stones, first found and later “made” by hunters who needed a general-purpose tool, were a “knife” of sorts that could also be used to hack, to pound, and to grub. In the course of a vast interval of time, a variety of single-purpose tools came into being. With the twin developments of agriculture and animal domestication, roughly 10,000 years ago, the many demands of a settled way of life led to a higher degree of tool specialization; the identities of the ax, adz, chisel, and saw were clearly established more than 4,000 years ago.
The common denominator of these tools is removal of material from a workpiece, usually by some form of cutting. The presence of a cutting edge is therefore characteristic of most tools, and the principal concern of toolmakers has been the pursuit and creation of improved cutting edges. Tool effectiveness was enhanced enormously by hafting—the fitting of a handle to a piece of sharp stone, which endowed the tool with better control, more energy, or both.
Early history of hand tools
Geological and archaeological aspects
The oldest known tools date from 3.3 million years ago; geologically, this is the middle of the Pliocene Epoch (about 5.3 million to 2.6 million years ago). The Pliocene was succeeded by the Pleistocene Epoch (2.6 million to 11,700 years ago), which terminated with the recession of the last glaciers, when it was supplanted by the Holocene Epoch (11,700 years ago to the present). The Pleistocene and Stone Age are in rough correspondence, for, until the first use of metal, about 5,000 years ago, rock was the principal material of tools and implements.
At first, humans were casual tool users, employing convenient sticks or stones to achieve a purpose and then discarding them. Although humans may have shared this characteristic with some other animals, their differentiation from other animals may have begun with the deliberate making of tools to a plan and for a purpose. A cutting instrument was especially valuable, for, of all carnivorous animals, humans are the only ones not equipped with tearing claws or canine teeth long enough to pierce and rend skin: humans need sharp tools to get through the skin to the meat. Naturally fractured pieces of rock with sharp edges that could cut were the first tools; they were followed by intentionally chipped stones. For archaeologists, the finding of primitive, intentionally made cutting tools indicates and confirms the early presence of humans at a site. Once understood, fire helped shape wooden implements before adequate rock tools were available for the purpose.
Fire was also the basis of metallurgy. When in historic time the powers of water and wind were applied to the daily tasks of grinding grain and raising water, the way to industrialization was opened.
The idea of relating human history to the material from which tools were made dates from 1836 when Christian Jürgensen Thomsen, a Danish archaeologist, was faced with the task of exhibiting an undocumented collection of clearly ancient tools and implements. Thomsen used three categories of materials—stone, bronze, and iron—to represent what he felt had been the ordered succession of technological development. The idea has since been formalized in the designation of a Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age.
The three-age system does not apply to the Americas, many Pacific Islands, or Australia, places in which no Bronze Age existed before the native inhabitants were introduced to the products of the Iron Age by European explorers. The Stone Age is still quite real in some remote regions of Australia and South America, and it existed in the New World at the time of Columbus’s first visit. Despite these qualifications, the Stone–Bronze–Iron sequence is of value as a concept in the early history of tools.
The Stone Age was of great duration, having occupied practically all of the Pleistocene Epoch. Copper and bronze appeared more than 5,000 years ago; iron followed in the next millennium or so and as an age includes the present.
The apparently abrupt transition from rock to bronze tends to mask the critical discovery of native metals and their utilitarian use and fails to indicate the significant discoveries of melting and casting. From bronze one can infer the crucial discovery of smelting, the process by which most of the common metals can be recovered from their ores. Smelted copper necessarily preceded bronze, a mixture of copper and tin, the first alloy. Iron came later, when technique, experience, and equipment were able to provide higher temperatures and cope with problems involved with its use.