cancer

Table of Contents

Introduction
Malignant tumours and benign tumours
Tumour nomenclature
- Nomenclature of benign tumours
- Nomenclature of malignant tumours
- Site of origin
Cancer rates and trends
- Statistical records
- Preventable cancers
- Cancer and age
- Death rates
- Variation with region and culture
- Exposure to carcinogens and disease
The growth and spread of cancer
- Tumour progression: the clinical view
  - Presentation
  - Precancerous stage
  - The noninvasive stage
  - Invasion and dissemination
- Metastasis: the cellular view
  - Angiogenesis
  - Microinvasion
  - Dissemination
- Effects of tumours on the individual
  - Local effects of tumour growth
    - Effects of location
    - Effects of functional activity
    - Effects of acute events
  - Systemic effects of malignant tumours
- The immune response to tumours
  - Immune surveillance
  - Tumour antigens
    - Tumour-specific antigens
    - Tumour-associated antigens
Diagnosis and treatment of cancer
- Diagnostic procedures
  - Biopsy
  - Evaluation of tumours
    - Grading and staging
    - Molecular evaluation
- Therapeutic strategies
  - Conventional therapies
    - Surgery
    - Radiation therapy
    - Chemotherapy
    - Bone marrow transplantation
  - Targeted therapies
  - Angiogenesis inhibitors
  - Immunotherapy
  - Gene therapy
- Strategies for cancer prevention
  - Chemoprevention
  - Screening and early detection
Causes of cancer
- The molecular basis of cancer
  - Genetic and epigenetic programs
  - Hallmarks of cancer cells
  - The role of mutation
  - Oncogenes
    - Retroviruses and the discovery of oncogenes
    - Proto-oncogenes and the cell cycle
    - From proto-oncogenes to oncogenes
      Chromosomal translocation
      Gene amplification
      Point mutation
  - Tumour suppressor genes
    - The RB and p53 genes
      Discovery of the first tumour suppressor gene
      Loss of function of the RB protein
      The p53 gene
    - Other tumour suppressor genes
  - DNA repair defects
  - Apoptosis and cancer development
  - Telomeres and the immortal cell
  - Cancer stem cells
- Invasion and metastasis
- Cancer-causing agents
  - Oncogenic viruses
    - DNA viruses
      Human papillomaviruses
      Epstein-Barr virus
      Hepatitis B virus
    - RNA viruses
  - Chemicals, particulate matter, and fibres
    - Initiators
    - Promoters
  - Radiation
    - Ultraviolet radiation
    - Ionizing radiation
- Inherited susceptibility to cancer
  - Familial cancer syndromes
  - Syndromes resulting from inherited defects in DNA repair mechanisms
Milestones in cancer science

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Written by José Costa

Fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

Last Updated: Mar 11, 2024 • Article History

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cancer, group of more than 100 distinct diseases characterized by the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the body. Though cancer has been known since antiquity, some of the most significant advances in scientists’ understanding of it have been made since the middle of the 20th century. Those advances led to major improvements in cancer treatment, mainly through the development of methods for timely and accurate diagnosis, selective surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapeutic drugs, and targeted therapies (agents designed against specific molecules involved in cancer). Advances in treatment have succeeded in bringing about a decrease in cancer deaths, though mainly in ...(100 of 21846 words)

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