Adobe Inc.

Adobe Inc., American developer of printing, publishing, and graphics software. Adobe was instrumental in the creation of the desktop publishing industry through the introduction of its PostScript printer language. Its headquarters are located in San Jose, California.

Founding of Adobe

The company was founded in 1982 by John Warnock and Charles Geschke. While employed at Xerox Corporation’s Palo Alto (California) Research Center (PARC), the two computer scientists had developed a programming language specially designed to describe the precise position, shape, and size of objects on a computer-generated page. This page description language, later known as PostScript, described such objects as letters and graphics in mathematical terms, without reference to any specific computer or printer; any device capable of interpreting the language would be able to generate a representation of the page at any resolution the device supported. When Xerox declined to bring the technology to market, Warnock and Geschke formed their own company to do so, naming it after a creek near their homes.

Desktop publishing revolution

In 1983 Apple Computer, Inc. (now Apple Inc.), acquired 15 percent of Adobe and became the first licensee of PostScript. In 1985 Apple introduced the first Macintosh-compatible PostScript printer, the LaserWriter, based on a laser-print engine developed by Canon Inc. The LaserWriter included PostScript renditions of several classic typefaces and a PostScript interpreter—in effect, a built-in computer dedicated to the task of translating PostScript commands into marks on each page.

Compared with the printing options previously available for personal computers, the combination of PostScript and laser printing represented a dramatic advance in typographical quality and design flexibility. Together with PageMaker, a page-layout application developed by Aldus Corporation, these technologies enabled any computer user to produce professional-looking reports, flyers, and newsletters without specialized lithography equipment and training—a phenomenon that became known as desktop publishing.

Many commercial printers and publishers were initially scornful because laser printer output fell short of professional standards. But manufacturers of the higher-resolution output devices called imagesetters, led by Linotype-Hell Company, followed Apple’s example in licensing PostScript, and within a few years it became common throughout the publishing industry.

Font wars

Adobe made its initial public stock offering in 1986. Although revenues grew to $168.7 million by 1990, Adobe’s relations with Apple deteriorated in the late 1980s over PostScript licensing fees, and in 1989 Apple announced plans to sell its Adobe stock, collaborate with Microsoft Corporation on development of an enhanced PostScript clone, and introduce a new font-rendering technology of its own, called TrueType. For more than a year the dispute, known as the font wars, roiled the computer and publishing worlds before Apple and Adobe reached a compromise. In the wake of the agreement, Microsoft abandoned its PostScript clone and adopted TrueType for its Windows operating systems.

Application software

During the 1990s Adobe’s revenues from PostScript licensing continued to increase, as did its sales of PostScript fonts; by the end of 1998 the Adobe Type Library encompassed more than 2,500 typefaces. An ever-larger share of the company’s revenues, however, came from sales of application software, initially for the Macintosh platform but later also for the UNIX and Windows operating systems. The first such application, introduced in 1987, was Adobe Illustrator, a PostScript-based drawing package for artists, designers, and technical illustrators. Adobe Photoshop, an application for retouching digitized photographic images, followed three years later and quickly became Adobe’s most successful program. It was one of the first commercial applications with an interface enabling outside developers to make new features available through plug-ins within the main program; scores of developers took advantage of this “open architecture,” helping to cement Photoshop’s dominance within its category.

In subsequent years Adobe added many other applications, primarily through a series of acquisitions. In 1991 it brought out Adobe Premiere, a program for editing video and multimedia productions. In 1994 the company acquired Aldus and its PageMaker software. The following year Adobe bought Frame Technology Corporation, developer of FrameMaker, a program designed for the production of technical manuals and book-length documents. It also purchased Ceneca Communications, Inc., creator of PageMill, a program for creating World Wide Web pages, and SiteMill, a Web site-management utility. In 1996 Adobe released its first title aimed at consumers, a simplified photo-editing program called PhotoDeluxe.

Another major company initiative in the 1990s—the Adobe Acrobat product family—was designed to provide a standard format for electronic document distribution. Once a document had been converted to Acrobat’s portable document format (PDF), regardless of its origins, users of any major computer operating system could read and print it, with formatting, typography, and graphics nearly intact, via the Acrobat Reader, an application the company offered for free. However, with the advent of the Internet and its need for compact file transfers, a competing format, HyperText Markup Language (HTML), eroded its market. In 1998 PDF became the new image format for the Macintosh operating system.

By 1997 almost 80 percent of Adobe’s total revenues came from application sales, and that year marked the first time that Windows-product revenues exceeded Macintosh-product revenues. In 2005 Adobe acquired Macromedia, Inc. In addition to Macromedia FreeHand (a major competitor of Illustrator), Dreamweaver (Web-authoring software), and Director (software for producing CD-ROMs), Adobe gained two innovative programs, Shockwave and Flash, for producing and distributing animations and interactive media over the Internet for viewing in Web browsers. In 2008 Adobe Media Player was introduced as a competitor to Apple’s iTunes, Windows Media Player, and RealPlayer from RealNetworks, Inc. In addition to playing audio and video files in a variety of formats on personal computers, Adobe Media Player was adopted by several television networks for deploying television shows over the Internet in the highly compact Flash format.